Our study investigates how business models, analyzed from a business model pattern perspective, can benefit from the anti-rivalry of digital goods. Following the state-of-the-art research in digitalization, we acknowledge that digital goods have the potential to increase in value when used; hence, they are characterized as “anti-rival.” This contrasts with standard goods—which decrease in value when used, making them “rival.” Mixing anti-rival and rival resources and goods in a single business model creates institutional complexity, which can be addressed with complexity management. We are particularly interested in complexity management approaches that do not artificially limit the value-creation potential of anti-rival goods. To that end, our analysis revealed seven complexity management mechanisms and 39 related business model patterns. The mechanisms and patterns were categorized into three metamechanisms offering distinct opportunities and challenges for business model innovators seeking anti-rival benefits. When reflected against institutional complexity theory, the approaches can be further divided between symbiosis-seeking (leveraging complexity) and synergy-seeking (decreasing complexity) approaches. Our study contributes to the ongoing discourse surrounding anti-rival goods by highlighting how business models can unleash their additive value-creation potential without unsustainably exploiting rival resources.
